Chapter 2: Review of Literature, Section III

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There are Theoretical Reasons To Expect Some Individuals to Experience Difficulty Learning Keyboarding

If students in the general population appear to benefit from the use of personal computers as writing tools and individuals with learning disabilities show an even greater need for some form of writing assistance, one would hope that personal computer word processors can be made accessible to individuals with learning disabilities. However, it is by no means certain that individuals with learning disabilities can learn keyboarding.

At least one writer suggests a theoretical basis for expectations that some students with learning disabilities may prove unable to acquire keyboarding skills at a rate commensurate with their normally developing peers (Lieberman, 1984). Lieberman has put forth a clearly reasoned and well supported argument suggesting a common neuropsychological basis for both syntactic deficits and deficiencies in the acquisition of complex patterned motor movements.

Lieberman believes that cognitive functions are not subsumed by specific narrow locales in cortex, but rather that the processing necessary for functioning is distributed across a number of locations and the results of this distributed processing are integrated at certain key crossroads sites. Lieberman's approach is also ontogenetic, positing that over the course of evolutionary time organisms may develop increasingly more complex and powerful capabilities based upon development and refinement of existing cortical structures. This tendency to use a preexisting cortical structure for a novel purpose is termed by Lieberman "preadaptation".

Automatization is also central to Lieberman's hypothesis. He notes that dyslexic individuals seem to have great difficulty in moving from the consciously controlled execution of cognitive tasks that typically characterizes the early stages of skill development to the relatively automatized control seen in fully developed expertise. As a result of this difficulty these individuals require many more repetitions of very explicitly presented stimuli to automatize skills that are quite readily acquired by the population at large. Lieberman points to syntactic deficits common among dyslexics and argues that they are a result of failure to shift from conscious cognitive control of language functioning to automatic response mechanisms.

Clinical observation suggests that several phenomenon commonly seen in the learning disabled population may also support Lieberman's hypothesis. At the sound/symbol level, dyslexics require considerable direct instruction with frequent review if they are to master the phonetic and orthographic systems of encoding and decoding speech sounds (Cox, 1985; Gillingham & Stillman, 1960; Johnson & Myklebust, 1978). Further, dyslexics commonly can spell or handwrite relatively well in isolated situations such as spelling tests or handwriting drills. However, a striking deterioration of these capabilities is frequently seen when they must be performed in the context of a larger cognitive task, such as writing a story or a letter. Arguably these individuals "know" more about spelling and handwriting than they are able to demonstrate in meaningful work; they have simply not automatized these skills sufficiently to allow them to be successfully executed as "background tasks" while other cognitively demanding activities are vying for the individual's finite cognitive resources. As a result, they are forced during writing to choose between consciously attending to spelling and handwriting or concentrating on content, organization, word choice, or the development of a personal "voice".

Lieberman cites other evidence for a link between linguistic deficits, particularly in syntax, and inability to master fine motor patterns. Brocha's aphasics, with their subtle and not so subtle syntactic deficiencies are said by Lieberman to experience fine motor problems. Studies of autistic and autistic-hyperlexic individuals cited by (Pisha, 1985) in his review of literature on the Hyperlexic Syndrome show repeated instances of deficits in sequencing and fine motor patterning in individuals diagnosed as "autistic", "hyperlexic", or "autistic savant". Despite relatively strong functioning in some other areas these subjects exhibited an almost complete inability to master English syntax, and as a result proved unable to use language to communicate ideas. Among the studies cited by Pisha are two, (Healy, 1982; Healy, Aram, Horowitz, & Kessler, 1981) that found in their autistic-hyperlexic subjects normal gross motoric milestones, but "...patterned actions such as tying shoes, buttoning, zippering and even opening doors were uniformly delayed." Scheerer has reported similar findings when he examined an autistic individual who would not open a door, ride a tricycle, or hold a knife and fork before the age of six years, and could not put on shoes and socks until the age of ten (Scheerer, Rothmann, & Goldstein, 1945). Goodman reports that an "autistic savant" he studied was also, by the age of 7-11, unable to cut, button, or snap (Goodman, 1972).

In addition to these cases, Pisha (1985) cited other reports of weak fine motor skills in the autistic-hyperlexic population (Cobrink, 1974; Elliot & Needleman, 1976; Huttenlocker & Huttonlocher, 1973; Mehegan & Dreifuss, 1972; Siegel, 1984). Deficits in fine motor patterning were not mentioned, but it appears that this is because only motor skills in a general sense, not motor patterning skills, were evaluated. It is safe to say, however, that deficits in syntactic abilities and deficits in the acquisition of fine motor patterning skills appear together in a large number of individuals diagnosed as autistic or autistic-hyperlexic.

Certainly the studies cited here do not constitute conclusive proof that dyslexics, who exhibit less striking forms of the same sorts of semantic and fine motoric symptoms that are described in the literature on Hyperlexic Syndrome, will experience difficulties learning the fine motor patterns necessary for skilled keyboarding. However, it is clear that both syntax and the fine motor patterning necessary for skilled handwriting is a problem for many of these individuals. It is hoped that the current study will contribute to our understanding of these issues.

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There is Further Evidence to Suggest That Some Individuals With Learning Disabilities May Not Readily Learn to Keyboard

A review of literature reveals writings by a number of researchers who have identified and investigated motor problems among at least a subset of students identified as learning disabled (Cruickshank et al., 1961; Frostig, 1970; Jordan, 1977; Mann & Suiter, 1978; Mattis, 1978; Mattis, French, & Rapin, 1975; Petrauskas & Rourke, 1979; Satz & Morris, 1981; Zeller, 1977). No study directly evaluating the potential relationship between these reported motor deficits and the acquisition of keyboarding skills has been found, but an hypothesis that a relationship can be found is not unreasonable. Many dyslexics experience clumsiness, particularly in fine motor areas (Denkla, 1973; Denkla, 1978; Mattis, 1975; Mattis, 1978; Myklebust, 1965; Myklebust, 1973; Zeller, 1977). One interpretation of this observed clumsiness is that it results from the inability to adequately automatize sequences of motor movements.

The current study will address key questions related to children's acquisition of keyboarding skills.

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Research Questions

This study addresses two principle questions:

1. Given regular opportunities for keyboarding practice, at what rate do elementary school-aged students acquire keyboarding skills?

2. Do elementary school-aged students with identified learning disabilities acquire keyboarding skills at the same rate as their non-disabled peers?

In addition to the two main questions, additional data will be gathered from a subset of the sample to address a third question:

3. Are there readily identifiable subgroups within the population of students with identified learning disabilities who experience particular difficulties in the acquisition of keyboarding skills?

This third question is included to provide validation of the major findings, to connect the findings more firmly to writing and writing instruction in elementary schools, and to suggest directions for future research.

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