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NCAC: Research & Solutions: Curriculum: Effective Classroom Practices: Classroom Management: References

References

Behets, D. (1997). Comparison of more and less effective teaching behaviors in secondary physical education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 13(2), 215-224.

The author reports the research on behavior interactions of high school physical education teachers and their students. Strategies of more- and less- effective teachers are examined in relation to student behavior. Behets found that more-effective teachers spent more time observing students participating/trying out in a new skill versus time on actual instruction.

Christenson, M. & Serrao, S. (1997). Cooperative learning in a hostile environment. Teaching and Change, 4(2), 137-156.

In this research, the authors studied the implementation and effects of cooperative learning in two urban second grade classrooms. Students were divided into groups and each was given a job within the group. An accountability system was implemented and students viewed videotapes of themselves while working in order to evaluate and discuss their effectiveness as a group. Results are presented and discussed, and recommendations are provided by the authors.

Colvin G. & Fernandez, B. (2000). Sustaining effective behavior support systems in an elementary school: Keeping the plan operating for almost a decade. Journal of Positive Behavioral Intervention, 2(4).

The authors of this article describe the critical factors and procedural steps that an elementary school utilized to establish a proactive school-wide discipline plan and implement effective behavior support systems. Areas to be addressed include; (a) establishing and maintaining the need, (b) forming and maintaining a leadership team, (c) clarifying roles and expectations for all faculty, (d) developing a data system that is systematically used for decision making, (e) sustaining a focus to address all components in the system, (f) maintaining a focus to meet evolving needs, (g) access to consultation from outside support systems, and (h) increasing emphasis on academic support.

Colvin, G., Sugai, G., Good, R. & Lee, Y. (1997). Using active supervision and precorrection to improve transition behaviors in an elementary school. School Psychology Quarterly, 12, 344-363.

Students' social behavior in transition settings (i.e., entering/exiting school, in cafeteria) is examined in relation to a school-wide intervention plan for problem behavior. The researchers report their findings, in brief, problem behavior in transition settings decreased and active supervision and precorrection by staff members increased as a result of the intervention plan.

Colvin, G., Sugai, G. & Patching, W. (1993). Precorrection: An instructional approach for managing predictable problem behaviors. Intervention in School and Clinic, 28, 143-150.

In this article, the authors discuss the differences between instructional and behavior management in common practices. Seven specific correction and precorrection steps are presented. "Precorrection" is one instructional strategy typically used for addressing academic errors, however its underpinnings can be carried over to the issue of addressing chronic behavior problems.

Dollase, R. H. (1992). Voices of Beginning Teachers. New York: Teachers College Press.

This book presents the 38 new secondary teachers' perceptions of teaching. Topics include classroom management, curriculum, the mentoring process, and these teachers' continual struggle to define and practice "good" teaching. For further analysis of the teaching experience, the author traces the evolution of four of these classroom teachers' philosophies of education.

Doyle, W. (1986). Classroom organization and management. In Merlin C. Wittrock (Ed.) Handbook of Research on Teaching, 4th Edition. New York: MacMillan Publishing.

Doyle discusses the importance of classroom management and its function in teaching. This book chapter details the nature of the classroom environment -from organization and physical design, to how academic tasks impact order. Additionally, he provides a detailed look at the classroom and how organization and management are constructed and the impact. Common themes are described as well as descriptions of areas where further research is necessary.

Dunlap, G., Foster-Johnson, L., Clarke, S., Kern, L. & Childs, K. (1995). Modifying activities to produce functional outcomes: Effects on the disruptive behaviors of students with disabilities. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 20(4), 248-58.

This article illustrates what happens when a teacher modified curricular activities for three students with special learning needs. The students' disabilities are identified as autism, mental retardation, and emotional/behavioral disorder. When learning was adapted to meet these students' individual interests, engagement increased and "problem behavior" decreased.

Dunlap, G. & Kern, L. (1996). Modifying instructional activities to promote desirable behavior: A conceptual and practical framework. School Psychology Quarterly, 11(4), 297-312.

The authors outline a model of curriculum modifications which have resulted in improved student behavior. Research supporting the influence of these instructional modifications is summarized and a practical model of functional assessment is provided. Practical issues and limitations of this framework of modifications are also discussed in relation to desirable student behavior.

Embry, D. (1997). Does your school have a peaceful environment? Using an audit to create a climate for change and resiliency. Intervention in School and Clinic, 32, 217-222.

This article presents a school-wide evaluation for violence prevention based on the Peace Builders Program. Central to this auditing tool is alignment, ensuring that administrators, teachers, and students share a common language. Built into the Peace Builders Program are several forms of positive reinforcement that include daily rewards for individuals and groups. The author also stresses the importance of school faculty modeling and teaching positive social skills.

Goolsby, T. (1996). Time use in instrumental rehearsals: A comparison of experienced, novice, and student teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 44(4), 286-303.

Music teachers' uses of time are compared using different variables. Different groups of teachers are compared during rehearsals and during the time students spend doing an activity. Variables such as preparation time, time in warm-up and breaks, among others, are explored. Overall it was found that the group of music teachers who spent the most time talking and the least amount of time allowing students to play instruments were the student teachers.

Gordon, S. (1991). How to help beginning teachers succeed. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

The author uses research concerning the challenges beginning teachers face as a basis for Beginning Teacher Assistance Programs (BTAPs). As a systematic, formal system of support, BTAPs are a set of strategies that aid new teachers during the induction process. The author stresses the importance of selecting and preparing mentors (veteran teachers). Equally important is the criteria used for matching these mentors with new teachers so that professional relationships may grow.

Harwood, D. (1995). The pedagogy of the world studies 8-13 project: The influence of the presence/absence of the teacher upon primary children's collaborative group work. British Educational Research Association. 21(5), 587-611.

Students' participation in a collaborative setting is analyzed in relation to the presence or absence of the teacher. Although groups with no teacher present were found to be on task, they did not display a significant amount of listening and or questioning skills and answers were not always justifiable. On the contrary the presence of the teacher showed improvement overall in collaborative group work. The resulting idea that the presence of the teacher, modeling and support is crucial in early stages of education is discussed.

Hooper, S., Ward, T., Hannafin, M. & Clark, H. (1989). The effects of aptitude composition on achievement during small group learning. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 16, 102-109.

In this article, the authors focus on two studies examining group composition effects on high school students. Group aptitudes are discussed in relation to the student small group learning. Aptitude groups were both hetero- and homogeneous and are described along with incidents of individual mastery.

Horner, R., Day, H., Sprague, J., O'Brien, M. & Heathfield, L. (1991). Interspersed requests: A nonaversive procedure for reducing aggression and self-injury during instruction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24(2), 265-278.

Three students with severe disabilities and aggressive and self-injurious behavior were studied by the authors. Typically these students responded aggressively to difficult instructional situations. However, using the described non-aversive procedure, the researchers found that these students were more responsive to instructions, and engaged in problem behavior less frequently, if simple commands were intermingled with the more challenging instructions.

Kern, L., Dunlap, G., Clark, S. & Childs, K. (1994). Student assisted functional assessment interviews. Diagnostique, 19, 29-39.

The article's authors stress the importance and positive outcomes of soliciting students' thoughts on classroom instruction and learning. One way to collect this data is the use of assessment interviews. The use of these interview protocols allows the teacher to modify instruction to best fit his or her students' perceived needs.

Lewis, T., Sugai, G. & Colvin, G. (2000). The effects of pre-corrective and active supervision on the recess behavior or elementary students. Education and Treatment of Children, 23(2), 109-121.

Pre-correction and active supervision strategies were examined for effectiveness in relation to problem behavior in an elementary setting. After a school-wide intervention program consisting of three specific strategies was implemented, problem behavior declined, however, a desired increase in active supervision was not found. Results and practical implications of these findings are provided by the authors.

Lewis, T., Sugai, G. & Colvin, G. (1998). Reducing problem behavior through a school-wide system of effective behavioral support: Investigation of a school-wide social skills training program and contextual interventions. School Psychology Review, 27(3), 446-459.

Effects of a school-wide attempt to reduce the amount of problem behavior in an elementary school were explored in this research. A specific social skill program and a direct intervention strategy were applied in three settings within the school to reduce problem behaviors. The researchers found that problem behavior declined when these strategies were implemented in these settings.

Lipsey, M. (1991). The effect of treatment of juvenile delinquents: Results from meta-analysis. In F. Losel, D. Bender & T. Bliesener (Eds.), Psychology and Law. New York: Walker De Gruyter, 131-143.

This meta-analysis of quantitative studies concerning treatment for juvenile delinquents refutes the claim that "nothing works." Instead, the author argues that data reveal that youth labeled "delinquent" are positively influenced by structured intervention. Overall, the literature points to increased school participation among those youths receiving treatment.

Mayer, G. (1995). Preventing antisocial behavior in the schools. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 467-478.

Correlates and factors of antisocial behavior are reviewed within the context of the home, community, and school. Factors of major contribution to antisocial behavior are found within specific settings of the school, along with a few factors also found in the home. In order to enhance the safety of the school environment increased attention to these settings is encouraged.

McManus, S. & Gettinger, M. (1996). Teacher and student evaluations of cooperative learning and observed interactive behaviors. The Journal of Educational Research. 90(1), 13-22.

The authors investigated teachers' use and assessment of cooperative learning, students' responses to working in groups, and students' oral interactions throughout the cooperative learning activities. The teachers and the students said that cooperative learning takes place in their classrooms almost daily and leads to many positive academic, social, and attitude results. The authors' observations demonstrated that the majority of student interactions had direct relationships with the teaching and learning.

Metzler, C., Biglan, A., Rusby, J. & Sprague, J. (2001). Evaluation of a comprehensive behavioral management program to improve school-wide positive behavior support. Education and Treatment of Children, 24(4), 448-479.

The research objective was to evaluate a consultative approach to facilitating the implementation of empirically based school-wide behavior management practices in middle schools. The authors assessed The Effective Behavior Support program by utilizing records of rewards given, discipline referrals, and recurrent student surveys. They found effects on increased positive reinforcement for appropriate social behavior and on decreased aggressive social behavior among students. Additionally, they found significant increases in student perceptions of school safety as well as significant decreases in seventh-graders' discipline referrals and for harassment among males.

Mulryan, C. (1995). Fifth and sixth graders' involvement and participation in cooperative small groups in mathematics. The Elementary School Journal. 95(4), 297-310.

This study is an analysis of 48 fifth- and sixth-grade students' responses in cooperative small group activities in mathematics. The author found that students tended to spend more quality time on-task in small-groups as opposed to in whole-class contexts and that students were much more active contributors in small-group settings than whole-class.

Mulryan, C. (1994). Perceptions of intermediate students' cooperative small-group work in mathematics. Journal of Educational Research. 87(5), 280-291.

The author conducted a study examining student thought-processes in the context of cooperative small-group instruction in mathematics. Fifth- and sixth-grade students and teachers were asked about how they perceived general facets of cooperative small-group instruction. The author then compared the students' and the teachers' answers as well as high and low achievers' responses and boys' and girls' responses. The author found that although students' and teachers' opinions were fairly well aligned, there were some significant differences which the author presents.

Nelson, J., Johnson, A. & Marchand-Martella, N. (1996). Effects of direct instruction, cooperative learning, and independent learning practices on the classroom behavior of students with behavioral disorders: A comparative analysis. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 4 (1), 53-62.

The authors conducted a comparative analysis of the effects of direct instruction, cooperative learning, and independent learning instructional methods on the behavior in the classroom of students with behavioral disorders. They found marked differences in the classroom behavior of students in the direct instruction condition, where these individuals exhibited higher rates of on-task behavior and lower rates of troublesome behavior in comparison to the other two conditions. The authors concluded that the instructional system underlying direct instruction practices reduces the disruptive behavior of students and that instructional methods can serve as aversive stimuli in classrooms.

Nelson, R., Smith, D. & Colvin, G. (1995). The effects of a peer-mediated self-evaluation process on the recess behavior of students with behavior problems. Remedial and Special Education, 16(2), 117-126.

The authors examined the effects of a self-evaluation process on the recess behavior of students with behavior problems as well as to ascertain whether the utilization of peers in the procedure aids the generalization of behavioral improvements. The authors found that peer-mediated self-evaluation procedure led to clear advances in the recess behavior of target students. Additionally, they found improvements were sustained throughout all experimental conditions and as the self-evaluation procedure was methodically faded and the effects generalized to afternoon recess also.

Ponti, C., Zins, J. & Graden, J. (1988). Implementing a consultation-based service delivery system to decrease referrals for special education: A case study of organizational consideration. School Psychology Review, 17, 89-100.

The authors of this article describe the systems-level activities involved in employing a consultation-based service delivery system meant to decrease referrals for special education. This approach is meant to facilitate the use of alternative interventions for students with mild learning and/or behavioral problems in general education classrooms. The authors provide a case example to illustrate the execution of this type of system in an elementary school as well as the outcome data. Additionally, the authors talk about factors that facilitate the implementation of this type of system.

Sharpe, T., Crider, K., Vyhlidal, T. & Brown, M. (1996). Description and effects of prosocial instruction in an elementary physical education setting. Education and Treatment of Children, 19(4), 435-457

The authors describe the developmental effects of an elementary school physical education teacher's proactive method of teaching pro-social behaviors. The authors assess this tactic through the use of an A-B-A design together with a control group comparison across six coordinated physical education classes in urban settings. They found positive cross-grade trends on student leadership and teacher independent problem resolution behaviors, significant decreases over time in students' exhibition of off-task behavior, a steady move from teacher- to student-directed gymnasium organization, and an ascending percentage of time dedicated to the subject matter of the activity.

Smylie, M. (1988). The enhancement function of staff development: Organizational and psychological antecedents to individual teacher change. American Educational Research Journal, 25, 1-30.

This study was conducted to explore the relationships among schools and classrooms, teachers' psychological states, and a change in individual teacher's practice through a staff development not associated with the school or the district's innovation. The teachers included in the study volunteered to participate in the staff development program meant to enrich individual teachers' routines. The author found evidence of indirect influences on individual changes of teachers' confidence about their practices, the concentration of low-achieving students in teachers' classrooms, and the interactions that the teachers have with their colleagues about their instructional methods.

Sparks, G. (1988). Teachers' attitudes toward change and subsequent improvements in classroom teaching. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 111-117.

The author investigated the relationship between teachers' attitudes toward teaching practices introduced in in-service training and the ensuing use of these practices. Three groups of middle school teachers attended a series of five workshops on effective teaching. Each group received different between-workshop activities. The author used pre- and post-training observations, questionnaire, and interviews to evaluate behavior changes and attitudes. She found that improving teachers diverged from non-improving teachers in their readiness to try out different strategies in their classrooms and in their increase in self-efficacy. Those teachers who did not improve were likely to defend their normal teaching style, to not experiment in their classrooms, and to have low expectations for themselves and their students. The author concludes that staff developers must address philosophical acceptance, self-efficacy, and the significance of suggested practices during in-service training.

Stright, A. & Supplee, L. (2002). Children's self-regulatory behaviors during teacher-directed, seat-work, and small-group instructional contexts. The Journal of Educational Research, 95(4), 235-246 (electronic copy from http://infotrac.galegroup.com).

The authors conducted a study to explore the differences between children's self-regulating behaviors in three different instructional contexts: teacher-directed, seat work, and small group. They observed 51 third-grade students during math and science lessons throughout the year. They found that during teacher-directed instruction although students were more likely to be organized than in the other two contexts, students were less likely to listen to instructions, examine their work, and ask for help than during seat work and small-group instruction. Additionally, they found that during small-group instruction, students were more likely to talk about their thoughts than during the other two contexts.

Taylor-Green, S., Brown, D., Nelson, I., Longton, J., Gassman, T., Cohen, J., Swartz, J., Horner, R., Sugai, G. & Hall, S. (1997). School-wide behavioral support: Starting the year off right. Journal of Behavioral Education, 7, 99-112.

This article offers a number of strategies school faculty can use to promote a safe and academically productive school environment. The authors emphasize the importance of consistency of concise rules, positive reinforcement of desired behavior, and that socially desirable behavior is strengthened when faculty take the time to teach these skills. The authors also offer examples of school-wide rules.

Tobin, T., Sugai, G. & Colvin, G. (1996). Patterns in middle school discipline records. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 4, 82-94.

The authors performed two studies to ascertain patterns found in the discipline referral records of middle school students. Using data from the first study, the authors created criteria for identifying students with chronic discipline problems and took a measure of the concentration of the students' behavior problems. They then created two differing groups in order to develop hypotheses about which term events in sixth grade predicted repeated behavioral problems. The second study compared discipline patterns for violent and nonviolent behaviors for students with severe discipline problems from three different middle schools. The authors concluded by discussing the utilization of school discipline referral patterns as a way to check for further assessments to improve their grasp of students' problem behavior and how to better create preventative interventions.

Tudge, J. & Putnam, S. (1997). The Everyday Experiences of North American Preschoolers in Two Cultural Communities: A Cross-level Analysis. In J. Tudge, M. J. Shanahan, & J. Valsiner (Eds.), Comparisons in Human Development (pp. 252-281). Cambridge University Press.

This book chapter focuses on the socio-cultural aspects of student interactions among preschoolers from two different communities of learning. The authors provide a description of variations in teacher and student behaviors in these settings as well as interpretations based on theoretical structures of social sciences.

Tudge, J. (1989). When collaboration leads to regression: Some negative consequences of socio-cognitive conflict. European Journal of Social Psychology, 19, 123-138.

This article presents the findings from a study of low-achieving students working in cooperative groups. Data suggest that these students work best in heterogeneous groups based on achievement, especially when they are able to discuss projects with their peers or have higher-achieving students clarify these tasks. The author points out, however, that not all students benefited from these arrangements, and teachers should consider the needs of each student before using heterogeneous grouping for the whole class.

Walker, H., Horner, R., Sugai, G., Bullis, M., Sprague, J., Bricker, D. & Kaufman, M. (1996). Integrated approaches to preventing antisocial behavior patterns among school-age children and youth. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 4(4), 194-209.

In this concept article, the authors recommend that schools adopt the role of coordinating intervention efforts with students who display antisocial behavior patterns. Additionally they advocate the collaboration with social services and the families of these students. Finally, the authors propose a three-level approach to organizing certain interventions for attaining prevention goals and outcomes and suggest interventions or tactics for each prevention level.

Webb, N., Baxter, G. & Thompson, L. (1997). Teachers' grouping practices in fifth-grade science classrooms. The Elementary School Journal. 98(2), 91-113.

In this study, grouping practices for hands-on science activities of 30 fifth-grade teachers from a large urban school district were observed. The authors found that while the composition of the groups differed, both among teachers and within classrooms, the teachers tended to form heterogeneous groups while when the students were allowed to form their own groups, they tended to pick homogeneous groups with respect to sex and ethnicity. Additionally, they found that composition of classrooms often inhibited some teachers' grouping students which led these teachers to form groups in ways counter to the recommended methods. The authors also discuss the implications of their findings for teachers' practice.

Webb, N. (1991). Task-related verbal interaction and mathematics learning in small groups. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22, 366-389.

This is an analysis of studies based on task-related verbal interactions among students in mathematics classrooms working in small groups and their connections to the students' achievements in mathematics. The author evaluates factors that have been shown to predict peer interactions in math groups and presents various methods for shaping group interactions. Student ability, gender, and personality, and makeup of the group are all predictors of group interaction on ability and gender. Furthermore, the author suggests that using specific group compositions, changing the reward structure, supplying training in desired verbal behavior, and designing the group activity in a way that it requires students to explain various things to one another are all ways to further effective small-group interactions.

Zanolli, K., Daggett, J. & Pestine, H. (1995). The influence of the pace of teacher attention on preschool children's engagement. Behavior Modification, 19(3), 339-356.

The authors compare the effects of equal amounts of teacher attention given at a fast or slow pace for three preschool children who had been identified as having trouble staying engaged with group or independent learning activities. They reported that rapid attention led to more engagement time than slow or no attention for all three children. The authors conclude that rapid-paced teacher attention can be effective in facilitating young children's engagement in activities.